The World Was Going Our Way Read online

  Table of Contents

  Title Page

  Dedication

  The Evolution of the KGB, 1917-91

  The Transliteration of Russian and Arabic Names

  Foreword

  Acknowledgements

  Chapter 1 - Introduction: ‘The World Was Going Our Way’ The Soviet Union, the ...

  Latin America

  Chapter 2 - Latin America: Introduction

  Chapter 3 - ‘The Bridgehead’, 1959-1969

  Chapter 4 - ‘Progressive’ Regimes and ‘Socialism with Red Wine’

  Chapter 5 - Intelligence Priorities after Allende

  Chapter 6 - Revolution in Central America

  The Middle East

  Chapter 7 - The Middle East: Introduction

  Chapter 8 - The Rise and Fall of Soviet Influence in Egypt

  Chapter 9 - Iran and Iraq

  Chapter 10 - The Making of the Syrian Alliance

  Chapter 11 - The People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen

  Chapter 12 - Israel and Zionism

  Chapter 13 - Middle Eastern Terrorism and the Palestinians

  Asia

  Chapter 14 - Asia: Introduction

  Chapter 15 - The People’s Republic of China From ‘Eternal Friendship’ to ...

  Chapter 16 - Japan

  Chapter 17 - The Special Relationship with India

  Chapter 18 - The Special Relationship with India

  Chapter 19 - Pakistan and Bangladesh

  Chapter 20 - Islam in the Soviet Union

  Chapter 21 - Afghanistan

  Chapter 22 - Afghanistan

  Africa

  Chapter 23 - Africa: Introduction

  Chapter 24 - The Cold War Comes to Africa

  Chapter 25 - From Optimism to Disillusion

  Chapter 26 - Conclusion: The KGB in Russia and the World

  Appendix A - KGB Chairmen, 1917-91

  Appendix B - Heads of Foreign Intelligence, 1920-2005

  Appendix C - The Organization of the KGB in the later Cold War

  Appendix D - The Organization of the KGB First Chief Directorate (Foreign Intelligence)

  Appendix E - The Organization of a KGB Residency

  Notes

  Bibliography

  Index

  Copyright Page

  ALSO BY CHRISTOPHER ANDREW AND VASILI MITROKHIN

  The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive

  and the Secret History of the KGB

  ALSO BY CHRISTOPHER ANDREW

  Théophile Delcassé and the Making of the Entente Cordiale

  The First World War: Causes and Consequences

  (Volume 19 of the Hamlyn History of the World)

  France Overseas: The Great War and the Climax

  of French Overseas Expansion

  (with A. S. Kanya-Forstner)

  The Missing Dimension: Governments and Intelligence

  Communities in the Twentieth Century

  (with David Dilks)

  Her Majesty’s Secret Service: The Making of

  the British Intelligence Community

  Codebreaking and Signals Intelligence

  Intelligence and International Relations 1900-1945

  (with Jeremy Noakes)

  KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations

  from Lenin to Gorbachev

  (with Oleg Gordievsky)

  Instructions from the Centre: Top Secret Files on

  KGB Foreign Operations 1975-1985 (published in the USA as

  Comrade Kryuchkov’s Instructions)

  (with Oleg Gordievsky)

  More Instructions from the Centre: Top Secret Files on

  KGB Global Operations 1975-1985

  (with Oleg Gordievsky)

  For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and

  the American Presidency from Washington to Bush

  Eternal Vigilance? Fifty Years of the CIA

  (with Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones)

  ALSO BY VASILI MITROKHIN

  KGB Lexicon: The Soviet Intelligence Officer’s Handbook (editor)

  In Memory of

  Vasili Nikitich Mitrokhin

  (1922-2004)

  and

  Nina Mikhailovna Mitrokhina

  (1924-1999)

  The Evolution of the KGB, 1917-91

  The functions, unlike the nomenclature, of the Soviet security and intelligence apparatus remained relatively constant throughout the period 1917-91. In recognition of that continuity, KGB officers frequently described themselves, like the original members of the Cheka, as Chekisty. The term KGB is sometimes used to denote the security and intelligence apparatus of the whole Soviet era, as well as, more correctly, for the period after 1954.

  FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE

  Founded in 1920, the foreign intelligence department of the Cheka and its inter-war successors was known as the Inostranni Otdel (INO). From 1941 to 1947 it was succeeded by the Inostrannoye Upravlenie (INU), also known as the First Directorate. From 1947 to 1951, the main foreign intelligence functions were taken over by the Komitet Informatsii (KI). From 1952 to 1991 foreign intelligence was run by the First Chief Directorate (save for the period from March 1953 to March 1954, when it was known, confusingly, as the Second Chief Directorate).

  HEADQUARTERS

  Foreign intelligence officers and directives to residencies referred to KGB headquarters as the ‘Centre’. In practice the ‘Centre’ usually referred to the HQ of foreign intelligence rather than of the KGB as a whole. The organization of the KGB First Chief (Foreign Intelligence) Directorate is given in Appendix D.

  KGB TERMINOLOGY

  For detailed definitions, see Mitrokhin (ed.), KGB Lexicon.

  Abbreviations and Acronyms

  AFSA Armed Forces Security [SIGINT] Agency (USA)

  ANC African National Congress

  ARA American Relief Association

  ASA Army Security [SIGINT] Agency (USA)

  AVH Hungarian security and intelligence agency

  AVO predecessor of AVH

  AWACS airborne warning and control system

  BfV security service (FRG)

  BND foreign intelligence agency (FRG)

  BNS Bureau of National Security (Syria)

  CCP Chinese Communist Party

  CDR Committee for the Defence of the Revolution (Cuba)

  CDU Christian Democratic Union (FRG)

  Centre HQ of the KGB (or FCD) and their predecessors

  Cheka Vserossiiskaya Chrezvychainaya Komissiya po Borbe s Kontrrevolyutsiei i Sabotazhem: All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (predecessor of KGB (1917-22))

  CI counter-intelligence

  CIA Central Intelligence Agency (USA)

  CISPES Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador (USA)

  COCOM Coordinating Committee for East-West Trade (NATO and Japan)

  Comecon Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Soviet bloc)

  Comintern Communist (Third) International

  CPC Christian Peace Conference

  CPC Communist Party of Canada

  CPCz Communist Party of Czechoslovakia

  CPGB Communist Party of Great Britain

  CPI Communist Party of India

  CPJ Communist Party of Japan

  CPM Communist Party of India, Marxist

  CPSA Communist Party of South Africa (later SACP)

  CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union

  CPUSA Communist Party of the United States of America

  CSU Christian Social Union (FRG; ally of CDU)

  DCI Director of Central Intelligence (USA)

  Derg Co-ordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and National
Guard (Ethiopia)

  DGI Dirección General de Inteligencia (Cuba)

  DGS Portuguese security service

  DGSE French foreign intelligence service

  DIA Defense Intelligence Agency (USA)

  DISA Direção de Informação e Seguranca de Angola

  DLB dead letter-box

  DRG diversionnye razvedyvatelnye gruppy: Soviet sabotage and intelligence groups

  DRU Dirección Revolucionaria Unida (El Salvador)

  DS Bulgarian security and intelligence service

  DST French security service

  EPS Ejército Popular Sandinista (Nicaragua)

  F Line ‘Special Actions’ department in KGB residencies

  FAPSI Federalnoye Agentsvo Pravitelstvennoi Sviazi i Informatsii: Russian (post-Soviet) SIGINT agency

  FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation (USA)

  FCD First Chief [Foreign Intelligence] Directorate, KGB

  FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office (UK)

  FLN Front de Libération Nationale (Algeria)

  FMLN Farabundo Martí de Liberación Nacional (El Salvador)

  FNLA Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola

  FRAP Frente de Acción Popular (Chile)

  FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique

  FRG Federal Republic of Germany

  FSB Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti: Russian security and intelligence service

  FSLN Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (Nicaragua)

  GCHQ Government Communications Head-Quarters (British SIGINT Agency)

  GDR German Democratic Republic

  GKNT Gosudarstvennyi Komitet po Nauke i Tekhnologii: State Committee for Science and Technology

  GPU Gosudarstvennoe Politicheskoe Upravlenie: Soviet security and intelligence service (within NKVD, 1922-23)

  GRU Glavnoe Razvedyvatelnoe Upravlenie: Soviet Military Intelligence

  GUGB Glavnoe Upravlenie Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti: Soviet security and intelligence service (within NKVD, 1934-43)

  Gulag Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei: Labour Camps Directorate

  HUMINT intelligence from human sources (espionage)

  HVA GDR foreign intelligence service

  ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile

  ICP Iraqi Communist Party

  IDF Israeli Defence Force

  IMINT imagery intelligence

  INO Inostrannyi Otdel: foreign intelligence department of Cheka/GPU/OGPU/GUGB, 1920-41; predecessor of INU

  INU Inostrannoe Upravlenie: foreign intelligence directorate of NKGB/GUGB/MGB, 1941-47

  IRA Irish Republican Army

  ISC Intelligence and Security Committee (UK)

  ISI Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence

  JCP Japanese Communist Party

  JIC Joint Intelligence Committee (UK)

  JSP Japanese Socialist Party

  KDP Kurdistan Democratic Party

  KGB Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti: Soviet security and intelligence service (1954-91)

  KHAD Afghan security service

  KI Komitet Informatsii: Soviet foreign intelligence agency (1947-51), initially combining foreign intelligence directorates of MGB and GRU

  KMT Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalists)

  Komsomol Communist Youth League

  KR Line Counter-intelligence department in KGB residencies

  KUTV Kommunisticheskii Universitet Trudiashchikhsia Vostoka: Communist University of the Toilers of the East

  LDP Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)

  LLB live letter-box

  MEISON All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement

  MGB Ministerstvo Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti: Soviet Ministry of State Security (1946-54)

  MGIMO Moscow State Institute for International Relations

  MI5 UK security service

  MI6 alternative designation for SIS (UK)

  MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Japan)

  MLSh Mezhdunarodnaya Leninskaya Shkola: International Lenin School

  MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola

  MVD Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh Del: Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs

  N Line illegal support department in KGB residencies

  NAM Non-Aligned Movement

  NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

  NKGB Narodnyi Kommissariat Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti: Soviet security and intelligence service (1941-46; within NKVD, 1941-43)

  NKVD Narodnyi Kommissariat Vnutrennikh Del: People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs (incorporated state security, 1922-23, 1934-43)

  NPUP National Progressive Unionist Party (Egypt)

  NSA National Security [SIGINT] Agency (USA)

  NSC National Security Council (USA)

  NSS National Security Service (Somalia)

  NSZRiS People’s [anti-Bolshevik] Union for Defence of Country and Freedom

  NTS National Labour Alliance (Soviet émigré social-democratic movement)

  OAU Organization of African Unity

  OGPU Obedinennoe Gosudarstvennoe Politicheskoe

  Upravlenie: Soviet security and intelligence service, 1923-34)

  Okhrana Tsarist security service, 1881-1917

  OMS Comintern international liaison department

  OSS Office of Strategic Services (USA)

  OT Operational Technical Support (FCD)

  OUN Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists

  OZNA Yugoslav security and intelligence service; predecessor of UDBA

  PAIGC Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde

  PCA Algerian Communist Party

  PCF French Communist Party

  PCI Italian Communist Party

  PCP Portuguese Communist Party

  PDP Partido del Pueblo (Panama)

  PDPA Afghan Communist Party

  PDRY People’s Democratic Republic of [South] Yemen

  PFLP Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine

  PLO Palestine Liberation Organization

  PPP Pakistan People’s Party

  PR Line political intelligence department in KGB residencies

  PRI Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Mexico)

  PSOE Spanish Socialist Party

  PUK Patriotic Union of Kurdistan

  PUWP Polish United Workers [Communist] Party

  RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police

  RENAMO Resistência Nacional Mocambicana

  RYAN raketno-yadernoe napadenie (nuclear missile attack)

  SACP South African Communist Party (previously CPSA)

  SADUM Central Asian Spiritual Directorate of Muslims

  SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

  SAM Soviet surface-to-air missile

  SB Polish security and intelligence service

  SCD Second Chief [Internal Security and Counter-Intelligence] Directorate (KGB)

  SDECE French foreign intelligence service; predecessor of DGSE

  SDI US Strategic Defense Initiative (‘Star Wars’)

  SDR Somali Democratic Republic

  SED Socialist Unity [Communist] Party (GDR)

  SIGINT intelligence derived from interception and analysis of signals

  SIN Servicio de Inteligencia Nacional (Peru)

  SIS Secret Intelligence Service (UK)

  SK Line Soviet colony department in KGB residencies

  SKP Communist Party of Finland

  SNASP Serviço Nacional de Segurança Popular (Mozambique)

  SNI Serviço Nacional de Informações (Brazil)

  SOE Special Operations Executive (UK)

  SPC Sindh Provincial Committee

  SPD Social Democratic Party (FRG)

  Spetsnaz Soviet special forces

  SR Socialist Revolutionary

  SRC Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)

  SRSP Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party

  S&T scientific and technological intelligence

  Stapo Austrian police security service

  Stasi GDR Ministry o
f State Security

  Stavka Wartime Soviet GHQ/high command

  StB Czechoslovak security and intelligence service

  SVR Sluzhba Vneshnei Razvedki: Russian (post-Soviet) foreign intelligence service

  SWAPO South-West Africa People’s Association

  TUC Trades Union Congress (UK)

  UAR United Arab Republic

  UB Polish security and intelligence service; predecessor of SB

  UDBA Yugoslav security and intelligence service

  UNITA União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola

  VPK Voenno-promyshlennaya Komissiya: Soviet Military Industrial Commission

  VTNRP Voenno-Trudovaya Narodnaya Revolyutsionnaya Partiya: Military-Labour People’s Revolutionary Party; Russian name for anti-Chinese underground in XUAR

  VVR Supreme Military Council (anti-Bolshevik Ukrainian underground)

  WCC World Council of Churches

  WPC World Peace Council

  X Line S&T department in KGB residencies

  XUAR Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region of China

  YAR [North] Yemen Arab Republic

  YSP [South] Yemeni Socialist Party

  ZANLA Zimbabwe African Liberation Army

  ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union

  ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union

  ZIPRA Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army

  The Transliteration of Russian and Arabic Names

  For ease of reference to published sources, when referring to authors and titles of Russian publications in the notes and bibliography we have followed the Library of Congress system usually used in library catalogues.

  In the text we have followed a simplified version of the more readable system used by the US Board on Geographic Names and BBC Monitoring Service. There are thus occasional discrepancies between the transliteration of names in the text and those of authors and titles in the notes and bibliography. Simplifications include the substitution in surnames of ‘y’ for ‘ii’ (Trotsky rather than Trotskii, as in the Library of Congress system) and ‘yi’ (Semichastny rather than Semichastnyi). For first names we have substituted ‘i’ for ‘ii’ (Yuri rather than Yurii). Instead of initial ‘ia’, ‘ie’ and ‘iu’ we use ‘ya’, ‘ye’ and ‘yu’. Soft and hard signs have been omitted. In cases where a mildly deviant English version of a well-known Russian name has become firmly established, we have retained that version, for example: Beria, Izvestia, Joseph (Stalin) and the anglicized names of Tsars.